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This time we will discuss about literature the sense of relation. For more detailed explanations, check out the articles below:
The relation hyponymy imposes a
hierarchical structure upon the vocabulary and upon particular fields within
the vocabulary and the hierarchical ordering of lexemes can be represented
formally as a tree diagram. For the example let see the following figure below:
Reference
This time we will discuss about literature the sense of relation. For more detailed explanations, check out the articles below:
SENSE RELATION
DEFINITION
Sense relation is a paradigmatic
relation between words or predicates. Sense is defined as its relations to
other expressions in the language system. Thus, there are words that have a
sense, but no referents in the real world. The sense of an expression is the
relation between the expression (a word, a phrase or a lexeme) with its
referent. In other words, the sense is the relation between form and meanings.
KINDS OF SENSE RELATION
There are
several kinds of sense relations as a result of the semantic relatedness
between the form and meaning and between two meanings:
a. Synonymy
The kind of
sense relation means “word of the same meaning” (Leech, 1981:92). Synonymy is a
condition in which two lexemes or words have “more or less” the same lexical
meaning “subroto, 1992:1). This condition results from the contiguity or
sameness in meanings between two lexemes or words. One way to check if the two
words are synonymous is to exchange one to another in certain syntactical
construction.
For example:
He has not
showered and eaten/
He has not
bathed and has eaten/
b. Antonym
Antonym is the state or phenomenon
in which the words have the sense relation which involve the opposite of
meaning. The concrete form of antonyms is called “antonym” (opposite).
For
example:
·
Bad and Good
·
Cheap and Expensive
A. Opposite and contrast
Denotation (denotation) is a
potential word like a door or a cat used in a particular language expression.
Denotation refers to the knowledge of objects / intentions in the speaker and
the listener and uses them in communication. Denotation shows a central aspect
of the meaning of the word in which every language user agrees on the meaning
of the word. With his knowledge, people use words in communication
successfully. In contrast to the connotation more to the meaning of the word
understood personally. Connotation differs according to individual experience,
though because people often share the same experiences, it may have the same
connotation of meaning. Denotation is the original meaning while connotation is
a figurative meaning. Example: your sweet smile
Reference
is the relationship between the expression of the language such as the door,
the door, the cat, the other cat and to whatever the phrase is referred to in
the situation of the use of a particular language including the imagery of what
the speaker is in. Reference refers us to meanings that directly refer to
things that can be real things, events, processes, features, symptoms of
something etc. For example: Goat/Mountain/Beautiful
a.
The referential
meaning of the above word is animal type.
b.
The land of a
very large hill, in which there is still active lava, or do not remove lava.
c.
Cheerful,
sparkling eyes, nice views, etc.
B. Directional, orthogonal and antipodal opposition.
Antonymy (narrowly defined in terms
of gradability), complementarity and converseness. Directional opposition
cannot be discussed satisfactorily except within a more general framework which
analyses location as being in a certain state and motion as some kind of change
of state.
Orthogonal is a
homonym for the meaning of words that have the same spelling and pronunciation
of different meanings and Antipodal opposition are two opposite points from one
place to another connected by a straight line.
The distinction between orthogonal
and antipodal opposites. If we consider the oppositions which hold within the
set (north, south, east, west ) we see that they are of two kinds. Each of the
four members of the set is opposed orthogonally perpendicularly to two others
(north is opposed in this way to ‘east’ and ‘west’, ‘east’ is opposed to
‘south’ and ‘north’, etc). And antipodally diametrically to one other (‘north’
is thus opposed to ‘south’ and ‘east’ to ‘west’.) When the antipodal opposites
are employed as two place predicative expressions (or within such two place
predicative expressions as to the south of).
Converse Conversances if a lexeme
describes a relationship between two things (or people) and some other lexeme
describes the same relationship when the two lexemes are CONVERSES of each
other.
Example:
·
Bellow and above
·
Love and hate
·
Conceal and
reveal own
C. Non binary contrast
Binary also called hemispheric
antonym is two words that opposite and cannot be measured. Like On and Off in
an electric light or a radio or television set is either on or off. See the
circle above, dead and live. These words are called binary because if the word
‘dead’ is ‘alive’ as it’s opposite. Binary antonyms do not accept modifiers— an
organism is either dead or alive, a door is either open or shut, a floor is
either clean or dirty, one is either asleep or awake. But in language is not
logic. Quite dead, very much alive, wide open, slightly dirty are meaningful
expressions.
Whereas Non-binary are also called polar
antonym is the two word that opposite and can be measured or related with exact
measurement. The terms old and young are non-binary antonyms and so are wide
and narrow. They are opposite ends of a scale that includes various
intermediate terms.
D. Hyponymy
According to Richards and Schmidt
(2002, p.243), hyponymy is “a relationship between two words, in which the
meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.” Hyponymy
is the state or phenomenon that shows the relationship between more general
term (lexical representation) and the more specific instances of it. The
concrete forms of sets of word (the specific instances) are called “hyponyms”. It can be seen in the relation
between cat and animal, pigeon and bird, orchid and flower. Cat is said to be a
hyponym of animal, pigeon a hyponym of bird, and orchid a hyponym of flower. On
the other hand, animal is said to be the superordinate (also called hyperonym)
of cat, bird the superordinate of pigeon, and flower the superordinate of
orchid. Such relation is often described as one of inclusion. “From the
extensional point of view, the class denoted by the superordinate term includes
the class denoted by the hyponym as a sub-class.” (Cruse, 2004, p. 148). Hence,
the class of flower includes the class of orchid as one of its subclasses.
Additionally, flower is the general term that includes orchid and other types
of flowers such as rose and tulip. The relations among orchid, rose, and tulip
are called co-hyponyms.
E. Hierarchical structure in the
vocabulary
The above figure is
an example of the hierarchical structure in the vocabulary used to determine
the hyponymy of a word or phrase. As described in the diagram of the phrase
"saving money" associated with saving money there are two, male and
female then both male and female can save money in the bank, in the English
sphere itself the word "wallet" is used for males while the word
"purse " used for female. So that, the process of determining the
hyponymy of a word or language is called the hierarchical structure.
F. Lexical gaps
Lexical gaps are the boundaries of the hierarchical
structure of the hyponymy that reaches the point where no common lexeme word is
found in a language. By a lexical gap is here meant what structuralist often
describe, metaphorically, as a hole in the pattern. The absence of a lexeme at
a particular place in the structure of a lexical field. It will be recalled
that, according to Trier, this is theoretically inconceivable but the
assumptions which determine his rejection of the possibility of lexical gaps
are questionable.
Chomsky’s examples 1965: 231; cf. Lehrer, 1974:97) in
English there is a word “corpse” meaning roughly “body of a dead human being”
and a word “carcass” meaning “body of a dead animal” but no word which is
applied to dead plants. First of all, it should be noted that the sense of
“corpse” and “carcass” is not a simple product of the sense of “dead” and
“person”, on the one hand and of “dead” and “animal”, on the other. “corpse” is
not a hyponym of person and carcass is not hyponym of animal. once we include
the sense of body in the gloss, then the alleged parallelism between “corpse”,
“carcass” and a potential but unactualized, lexeme applicable to dead plants is
destroyed. Furthermore, it might be argued that “corpse” and “carcass” do not
contrast in the way suggested by the glosses that we have attached to them. If
cannibalism were institutionalized in English speaking countries and human
beings were slaughtered with sheep, cattle and pigs for food, it is predictable
that “carcass” would be applied to the dead bodies of human beings delivered to
the butcher’s shop.
It is
not facetious point that is being made in connexion with this example. Nor can
it be dismissed with an appeal to the difference between the cognitive meaning
and emotive meaning of words. It simply is not clear that “corpse” and
“carcass” are related in cognitive meaning or sense in the way that has been
suggested. The point is that our dealings with dead human beings and dead
animals are characteristically different and these are institutionalized in
funerals and inquests. The fact that we do not have a word meaning “dead plant”
is presumably to be accounted for by the fact that dead plants, as a class of
objects have not culturally recognized role in the societies in which English
has evolved.
G. Marked
and unmarked
In linguistics, markedness refers to the way words are
changed or added to give a special meaning. The unmarked choice is just
the normal meaning. For example, the present tense is unmarked for English
verbs. If I just say "walk" that refers to the present tense. But if
I add something to "walk" (marking it), such as adding ‘ed’ to the
end, I can indicate the past: "walked".
Similarly, male things are unmarked, while female things are
marked with special endings like "ess" and "ette". For
example: "actress", "poetess". In dog breeding, the male is
known as the "dog" while the female is known as the
"bitch". In man (humanity), the male is known as the "man",
while the female is known as the "woman". In a discussion about some
random persons, "he" is often used to refer to one of them. The
ending ‘ette" by the way is also used for the diminutive or non-serious,
as in "dinette". In general, femaleness in language is associated
with small size and non-seriousness. (as in, 'an actor worries about
interpretation, an actress worries about cellulite').
Outside of linguistics, markedness refers more generally to a
choice that has meaning. If I meet you on campus and say "Hi, how are
you?" you may or may not even answer the question. But if I say "Hi,
how’s your dad?" this is special. You are likely to think of the question
as act/ually asking how your dad is. It carries the implication that your Dad
is not well. In general, when you choose the marked choice (the non-normal
choice), you are making a statement. There is meaning.
When a man
wears a suit to work, it doesn’t normally have much meaning: its just normal.
That doesn’t mean we can’t interpret the action. If we bothered to think about
it, we might say the person is a team-player, they conform to customs, they are
not rebels. But the clothing is not interpreted as intentionally making a
statement. In contrast, if they show up in shorts one day, it makes a
statement. It will be seen as a deliberate choice. As having intentional
meaning.
Tannen says
that most of what women do is marked, just as femaleness is marked in the
language itself. They don’t seem to have as many neutral choices that say
nothing special about them.
H. Part whole relation
Meronymy is a semantic relation specific to
linguistics, distinct from the similar meronomy. A meronym denotes a
constituent part of, or a member of something. That is, “X” is a meronym of “Y”
if X s are parts of Y(s), or “X” is a meronym of “Y” if Xs are members of Y(s).
For example, finger is a meronym of hand because a finger is part of a hand.
Similarly, wheels is a meronym of automobile. Meronymy is the opposite of
holonymy. A closely related concept is that of mereology, which specifically
deals with part-whole relations and is used in logic. It is formally expressed
in terms of first-order logic. A meronymy can also be considered a partial
order. A meronym refers to a part of a whole. A word denoting a subset of what
another word denotes is a hyponym. In knowledge representation languages,
meronymy is often expressed as "part-of”
Part whole relation is relation between
two concept (classes) or object (instances) “whole” and “part”.
For example part whole
relation in linguistic:
Ø a
wife has a husband = A husband is a part of a wife.
Ø a
sound has a pitch and a volume = A valume is a part of a sound.
Ø changing
nappies is part of being a mother = Being a mother has changing nappies.
Ø a
book has pages =A page is a part of a book.
I. Component Analysis
Component analysis is
the approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it its atomic feature.
It shows the semantic features of a word
For an example:
Ø Man:
+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT
Ø Boy:
+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT
Ø Father:
+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT+PARENT
Ø Daughter:
+HUMAN+FAMALE+ADULT
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Saving Money
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Quite a lot of discussion this time. may be useful. thank you.
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